The principal adaptive responses are hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy, and metaplasia. If the adaptive capability is exceeded or if the external stress is inherently harmful, cell injury develops.
Within certain limits injury is reversible, and cells return to a stable baseline. However, severe or persistent stress results in irreversibel injury and death of affected cells.
Cell death is one of the most crucial events in the evolution of disease in any tissue or organ. It results from diverse causes, including ischemia (lack of blood flow), infections, toxins, and immune reactions. Cell death is also a normal or essential process in embryogenesis, the development of organs, and maintenance of homeostasis.
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